Data modems are devices that convert signals between analog and digital formats for transfer to other lines. Data modems are used to transfer data signals over conventional analog telephone lines. The term modem also may refer to a device or circuit that converts analog signals from one frequency band to another.
A point-to-point analog data circuit requires a modem at each end to transfer digital signals. The type of modems used on each end must be compatible due to encoding and decoding processes. Analog communication lines are restricted to audio bandwidth of 300 Hz to 3300 HZ. To communicate digital data and control signals, the modems vary the frequency of the carrier in each direction based on an agreed to algorithm for encoding bits.
Figure 1 shows a modem with its functional responsibilities listed. From the DTE (serial interface RS 232-C) to the line the modem performs a digital-to-analog conversion and from the line to the DTE an analog-to-digital conversion.
Digital Service Unit (DSU)/Channel Service Unit (CSU)
DSU/CSU’s are the digital equivalent of the analog modem and are translation codecs (COde and DECode) coupled with a network termination interface (NTI). DSU/CSU’s operate only in a digital environment. DSUs/CSUs work together to reformat and channelize digital signals for transmission on multiple channel lines.
Hub
A hub is a communication device that distributes communication to several devices in a network through the re-broadcasting of data that it has received from one (or more) of the devices connected to it. A hub generally is a simple device that re-distributes data messages to multiple receivers. However, hubs can include switching functional and multi-point routing connection and other advanced system control functions. Hubs can be passive or active. Passive hubs simply re-direct (re-broadcast) data it receives. Active hubs both receive and regenerate the data it receives.
Figure 9.9 shows an Ethernet hub. This diagram shows that one of the computers has sent a data message to the hub on its transmit lines. The hub receives the data from the device and rebroadcasts the information on all of its transmit lines, including the line that the data was received on. The hub’s receiver and transmit lines are reversed from the computers. This allows the computers that are connected to the hub to hear the information on their receive lines. The sending computer uses the echo of its own information as confirmation the hub has successfully received and retransmitted its information. This indicates that no collision has occurred with other computers that may have transmitted information at the same time.
Bridge
A bridge is a data communication device that connects two or more segments of data communication networks by forwarding packets between them. The bridge operates as a physical connector and buffer between similar types of networks.
Bridges extend the reach of the LAN from one segment to another. Bridges have memory that allows them to store and forward packets. Bridges are protocol independent as the do not perform protocol adaptations.
Bridges contain a packet address-forwarding table (routing table) that they use to determine if the packets should be forwarded between networks. The packet-forwarding table contained within the bridge can be initially programmed or learned by the bridge. A self-learning bridge can monitor packet traffic in the network to continually update its packet-forwarding table
Bridges primarily operate at the physical layer and link layers of the OSI reference model. A bridge receives packets from one network, review the address of the packet to determine if it should be routed to the other network(s) it is connected to, and retransmits the packet following the standard protocol rules for the systems it is connected to.
Figure 3 shows the basic operation of a bridge that is connecting 3 segments of a LAN network. Segment 1 of the LAN has addresses 101 through 103, segment 2 of the LAN has addresses 201 through 203, and segment 3 of the LAN has addresses 301 through 303. The table contained in the bridge indicates the address ranges that should be forwarded to specific ports. This diagram shows a packet that is received from LAN segment 3 that contains the address 102 will be forwarded to LAN segment 1. When a data packet from computer 303 contains the address 301, the bridge will receive the packet but the bridge will ignore (not forward) the packet.
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